Advanced Bread Making Course 🍞
Part 3: Processes Involved In Bread Making

For the final session of our Advanced Bread Making Class, we'll be looking at the actual chemical and physical processes involved in making good bread – what you would refer to in a recipe as "The Method".

The goal is not just that you know what each process is, but what it accomplishes and how to adjust it. Again, as mentioned in Part One, it's having this knowledge that allows you to adapt basic recipes to suit your needs and to be confident that you can rise (hyuck!) to any bread making occasion.

The processes of bread making are – fermentation, mixing, moulding and shaping and baking – but, as you will see, some of the processes have several stages and these are performed out of order. We will put all the processes and stages together into a time line (the method) at the end of the section.

The first process we need to consider is:

FERMENTATION

Fermentation is the chemical process at the heart of bread making. It refers to the conversion of starches in the flour to carbon dioxide, alcohol and heat.

There are two particular issues that affect fermentation. The first is:

Fermentation Issue #1 - Use of a Pre Ferment:

One of the central 'truths' of baking is that the longer you can leave your yeast and flour and water together, the better the taste of your dough. You would think then that the longer your dough had to ferment the better it would be, but this is not the case. Think of your gluten strands as being like rubber bands. New rubber bands are lovely and stretchy, but the longer you leave them laying around, the weaker they become – over time, the gluten's structure breaks down and it won't hold the fermentation gases anymore – so, whilst you want great tasting, full-flavoured dough, you also have to ensure that your dough is in optimum condition when it hits the oven.

To overcome this, a variety of methods have been developed to impart the flavours associated with a longer mellowing time into the dough, without risking the 'health' and structural integrity of the batch (what professionals refer to as the 'dough tolerance').

These methods all involve some sort of advance preparation of a portion (up to 50%) of the batch of dough you are working on and then leaving that portion aside for an amount of time (up to 18 hours) before incorporating it into (or making the rest of) the main dough batch.

Please note: if you are using a pre-ferment method, it is not usual to use a bread improver as well.

The four main methods are:

For each of these three first methods, the Amount of Yeast you add depends not on the recipe you are using but on the amount of time you are going to leave the pre ferment aside. If you are going to leave it to develop for three hours, use 1% (of the flour weight you are using to make your Pre Ferment) worth of yeast, for six hours – 0.6%, for 10 hours - 0.5% and 18 hours -0.1%.

Similarly, for each of these methods, the amounts of flour, water and yeast used in the making of the pre ferment need to be deducted from the amounts used to make the rest of the batch when you go on to complete it.

Also, please note: no salt is used in any of these first three methods, that is unless you are right up north in the hot and humid tropics. Up there, you can add 0.1 – 0.2% of your pre ferment flour weight in salt to slow everything down enough to make the technique of pre ferment worthwhile.

There are three other major resting/fermentation times when the dough is left to develop. These are called (imaginatively!) the first, second and third ferments. There will be more about them later, as they relate to specific processes yet to come, suffice to say for now that:

1. The term FIRST FERMENT refers to the time the dough batch is left to develop as a whole piece.
2. The term SECOND or INTERMEDIATE FERMENT refers to the time the just divided and pre-shaped individual loaves spend developing.
3. The term THIRD FERMENT or RESTING/RELAXING TIME refers to the period of time after the final loaf shape is formed and the loaves are left to reach maximum gluten development and are ready for the oven.

Fermentation Issue #2 - Calculating Temperature:

The other factor which really affects the rate of fermentation is the temperature of the dough, particularly the temperature after its final mix, just as it comes out of the bowl and is left to rise for the first time, which is of course when the bulk of the fermentation process occurs.

The ideal temperature for most dough's is 23^oC to 26^oC. Having your dough ready to rise at this temperature creates the optimum environment for fermentation:

If the dough is too hot, the yeast organisms will grow too fast and fermentation tolerance will occur before the proper balance of strength and flavour has been reached.

If the dough is too cold, the yeast will be sluggish and fermentation will take considerably longer.

If the dough is just right, then the yeast will be nicely active and you will get a good rise in your first ferment and well on your way to making a successful batch of bread.

Because being in that optimum temperature range is so important, it's important to understand all the factors that contribute to the final temperature of the dough:

The Room Temperature:

Room temperature varies more than you think, so it's handy to have an accurate reading from the actual spot where your dough will be left to ferment.

THE BAKER SAYS: "Most of us have heard it said that dough needs to be ‘protected from drafts', but this is not a reference to it being susceptible to cold, it's actually because wind blowing over the dough will form a skin and interfere with the rising of the dough".

The Flour Temperature:

Obviously, flour taken from the fridge or freezer will be colder than flour stored at room temperature, however knowing and using your flour temp allows you a degree of control – on a hot day or in a hot kitchen, starting with cold flour can help ensure you end up at the optimal dough temperature (as per below).

The Water Temperature:

Obviously, the temperature of the water in the dough is the area where you have the most control – there's a lot of water in bread dough and it is easy to establish and adjust the temperature of it. Because of this, the water temperature is the key to controlling the fermentation process.

Below is a formula for calculating the water temperature needed to end up at optimal dough temperature. As a general rule of thumb though, your water temperature shouldn't ever be over 35 – 38 degrees Celsius. If a water temp higher than that is needed to reach optimal temperature, cooling down the flour is the next best alternative.

Other Temperatures That Effect Fermentation:

To accurately predict your dough temperature, you must also monitor the temperature of your pre ferment (if you are using it) and also calculate the friction factor of your mixing method.

Clearly, if you are hand mixing a small batch of dough, calculating temperature on this scale is overkill and the 'friction factor' is negligible. If this is the case, don't fuss too much, but bare the 23^oC to 26^oC ideal range in mind. If however, you are using even a domestic Mix Master or any sort of other machine with a dough hook, the friction factor of the machine will have an effect on your final temperature.

To measure it, take the temperature of your dough before mixing (there will be more about mixing later, don't worry!) and then run the machine at the correct speed for 2 minutes and take the temperature again (NOTE: see Mixing Section to follow, the machine should be running at dough development speed during this time). The difference between the two temperatures is your machine's friction factor.

Once you have all this info, then you put it all together like this:

Try calculating the necessary water temperature if you have the following conditions:

• A friction factor of 3^oC
• A room temperature of 24^oC
• Flour at 20^oC
• A poolish at 18^oC

Answer to the above water temperature calculation

• Final desired temp 25^oC, less friction factor of 4^oC = 21^oC times 4 = 84^oC.
• Room, flour and preferment temp (25 + 20 + 18) = 63^oC.
• Subtract the totals... 84 – 63
• Gives a necessary water temperature of 21^oC.

The next major process involved in bread making is:

MIXING

It is advisable when making serious batches of bread to always ensure your flour and water are mixed together properly before anything else occurs. The technical term for this kind of 'pre-mixing' is AUTOLYSE.

Autolyse

If you're using a machine, allow the dough 4-5 minutes on slow speed for the flour to properly hydrate and blend with the water.

If you're mixing by hand, after you've incorporated the flour and water to the point where there are no lumps of dry flour visible, leave the mix sit on the bench for a minimum of 20 minutes to allow the gluten structure to develop without wearing yourself out.

This autolyse process is so beneficial to enhancing the chemical activity of the dough that you may want to extend the time you leave the flour and water mix standing. Regardless of whether you have autolysed by hand or machine, after the mix is smooth, you can leave it stand in its bowl, covered with a damp tea towel for up to 24 hours.

Bakers (and baking literature) often confuse the pre ferment and autolyse processes. Both processes are beneficial and can be done to the same batch, however for the home baker, realistically, doing both a poolish and then autolysing the same batch is very difficult because you will have to amalgamate a very wet dough into a very firm one (the polish having most of the recipes water content in it).

Similarly, autolysing for longer periods of time makes accurate temperature calculations difficult. As a rule of thumb, a 20 min autolyse will not affect a temperature calculation overmuch, but if you are doing a 24 hour autolyse, any temperature calculation will be meaningless.

That said, the ultimate aim is still a dough temperature that will assist fermentation. So the theory of temperature calculation is still sound in that, if your autolysed mix and all your other ingredients are at room temperature (and you know what that is) and you take into account your friction factor, you will have a fairly accurate idea of whether your batch temperature is lower than 25 degrees or not. If it is lower, then you need to allow for an extended proving time. If it is higher (that tropical weather again!) then a shorter proving time will be required – do not be afraid to 'take your dough's temperature' to establish if it is at or close to the ideal fermentation range and, once you know that, use that knowledge to adjust the situation closer to the ideal range. For instance: in particularly cold climates, dough may need to be placed in a partially open, warm oven or in front of a fire to prove. In warm climates, moving your dough to a cooler (maybe even air conditioned?) room, or onto a tiled floor or wherever the coolest spot in the house is, may do the trick.

Incorporation

After the pre mix/autolyse stage, the next part of the mixing process is called INCORPORATION.

This is where the yeast and salt are incorporated into the dough. The sugar and fat content of the mix (if they are being used and if they are under 10% of the flour weight) may also be added here, though any quantity of sugar or fat over the 10% mark should not be added here, but should be left till after the dough development stage. Nuts, grains and other chunky items should also be left until after the dough development stage before they are mixed through.

On a standard commercial or domestic mixer, incorporation takes a minimum of 3 mins on first or low speed. If you are mixing by hand, then you should probably spend around three to five minutes mixing. It is nearly impossible to over mix by hand as by the time the mix is sufficiently incorporated, the dough will be starting to form a ball and it will be nearly impossible to continue to stir it around in a bowl and/or without changing to a kneading motion.

Dough Development

The final phase of the mixing process is called DOUGH DEVELOPMENT. The actual mixing time in this stage is dependent on the level of gluten development required in the bread.

Commercially, second speed is used, which translates as mid speed or no. three or four on a domestic machine, or at least 10-15 minutes of work if kneading by hand.

The amount of time you spend mixing at this dough development stage will have a major effect on the structure of your bread:

Mixing Times: (when mixing by hand, treat a 'knead' as one revolution)

• Short Mix is defined as: 600 revolutions or 50% gluten development
• Improved Mix is defined as: 1000 revolutions or 75% gluten development
• Intensive Mix is defined as: 1600 revolutions or 100% gluten development

If you use the Short Mix time, your gluten structure will be under developed. This is not a bad thing, however! It means that you will have a nice open irregular crumb, a creamy colour, a complex flavour and a longer shelf life.

There is a specific technique too that optimises the strength of your dough if you mix it using the Short Mix method. It is called 'Lift and Fold'. After you have mixed the dough, when you put it aside to develop, the ideal time for a short mix to be left to ferment is 3 hours, 45 minutes.

During this time, you treat the dough like pastry, in that, every 45 minutes, you lift a different side of the dough and place it over on the opposite side, smooth it down and set it aside again.

Lift and Fold Method

1: From the sides, pick up one end of your dough.

2: Lift and stretch out that side of the dough.

3: Fold the stretch piece over.

4: Smooth the dough gently back into shape.

5: Cover it back over and leave it to rest for 45 mins.

6: 45 mins later, turn the dough ¼ turn and repeat process. Do this 4 times.

It is particularly important to use the Lift and Fold method if you are kneading your dough by hand as the standing time and the folding really increases the level of gluten development that occurs. 100% gluten development is nearly impossible to achieve when mixing by hand, but the Lift and Fold method will significantly increase the percentage possible.

I know it seems a bit out of order, but let's talk about the Intensive Mix next:

The Intensive Mix technique is the method developed with the coming of really serious industrial bread making and bread making machines in the 1950's. It results in a tight, white, fine crumbed bread in which the gluten is fully developed and the volume is maximised.

Because of the intensive mixing, the first fermentation time is only around 15 minutes. This method is the most commonly used method in commercial and/or industrial bread baking, but is not really used in Artisan or home baking.

The final option, the Improved Mix technique is the most commonly used method in professional Artisan baking because it sits between the two other techniques and so has the benefits of the short mix method but also some of the volume and gluten development of the intensive mix, yet it doesn't take the time or involve as many processes as the short mix way does.

The ideal first fermentation time for an improved mix dough is about one and a half hours. No lifting or folding is required.

These three accompanying photo's show the difference in the look and elasticity of dough mixed using the three different techniques (Please note that the photos are taken at the end of the mixing time, before any techniques, like the first ferment or lifting and folding have occurred).

SHORT MIX

IMPROVED MIX

INTENSIVE MIX

In general, you can use any of the three methods to make any style of bread (unless as previously stated you are mixing by hand, in which case you would use the short mix and the lift and fold method). The difference shows primarily in the crumb structure. If you are after a closed, tight structure (like a commercial white loaf), you would use the intensive mix method, for a very open structure, you would use the short mix and the majority of the time (provided your mixmaster can stand it!) you'd use the improved mix.

This photo shows the difference in the finished texture of the bread using each of the three methods.

Just a reminder too that high sugar and/or high fat content amounts or any chunky grains, seeds or other ingredients should be gently mixed through at this point (the end of the dough development stage, but before the first ferment or any lifting and folding occur).

After the other ingredients have been incorporated and the first ferment has occurred, the next major process in bread making is:

MOULDING AND SHAPING

Moulding and shaping the dough is another very important process in bread making. It not only determines the final shape of the bread but also effects the internal cell structure and texture that it will have. As with mixing, there are several steps in the process.

SCALING AND DIVIDING

When dividing the dough into parts, a single cut piece of dough the size of your loaf (for example: 750 grams is a generally considered the right size for making a Vienna bread loaf) will produce  a better loaf of bread than lots of smaller dough pieces combined together. Also be careful not to tear or stretch the dough during the dividing process – gentle arranging/lengthening of the dough mound on the bench, so that a single clean cut severs each piece, is preferable.

THE PRE SHAPE/MOULD

The pre shape is the shape the dough is arranged in after the dough is divided as above and before it is left for its second ferment.

The pre shape should be fashioned in a similar form to the final shape. For example: a French baguette  pre shape is a lightly formed short cylinder, a Cob or Boule is rounded into a lightly formed  ball and a Vienna loaf into an oval.

THE SECOND OR INTERMEDIATE PROOF

Once the pre shape is formed, the dough should be allowed to rest again for between 15-30 minutes to allow the gluten in the dough to relax. This important step will make the final shaping easier, with less contraction of the dough.

The length of time the dough is left to prove at this stage will depend on the dough characteristics. If the loaf is really tight (for example, if significant pressure was exerted making the pre-shape or if the dough itself was underdeveloped and slack and so it needed to be worked more than anticipated at the pre-shape stage), then the dough can be left to rest longer, if the dough is lively but loose, it may only need the 15 minutes.

THE FINAL SHAPE/MOULD

After the dough has relaxed from the cutting and pre-shaping processes, it needs to be gently reformed or rolled into its final form.

Depending on the loaf, sometimes the final shape is formed in a container (which the bread is then baked in) or by placing it into a mould (like a traditional banneton or dough proofing basket) or by temporarily using a tea towel or other device to hold your loaves or buns in a particular shape until they are ready to bake.

If the dough is staying in a tin for both moulding and baking, the container must be oiled. These days, spray oil is the most popular method as it gives such a light, even coating to the container.

If you are using a banneton basket or some other holding structure or tea towel divider, these items usually need to be very well floured, so that the dough comes out easily onto the peel or stone.

The final shaped dough piece should have a smooth tight skin without any tearing, holes or irregularities and be able to hold its own shape. For best results, until the dough is placed in the oven, keep it in a humid environment with a temperature of 24-28^oC and cover it to prevent a dry skin from forming.

THE BAKER SAYS :"Above all, be gentle with your dough. You have spent a lot of time allowing gas bubbles to form, don't destroy them through rough handling. The more gas bubbles you can maintain through the moulding and shaping processes, the better the cell structure in the final baked product".

FINAL PROOF / RELAX

The time the formed loaf sits at this stage until it is ready to bake is referred to as the final ferment or final proof time. The simplest method to determine if/when your dough is ready to bake is to use THE PRESS TEST:

NOT READY TO BAKE - lightly press the dough with your finger, if the dough feels tight and springs completely back without leaving an indentation,  the dough is under proved. If baked at this point, there will be lots of oven spring and splitting and tearing around the base of the loaf.

READY TO BAKE - lightly press the dough with your finger,  if the dough is soft,  full of gas and springs back half way but leaves a partial indentation, the dough is ready to bake. If baked at this point, the dough should kick (expand) 25-50% in the oven and you should achieve great looking slash marks.

TOO LATE - lightly press the dough with your finger, if the dough is excessively soft, full of gas, does not spring back at all and leaves an indentation in the dough the same size as your finger, it is over proved. There will be very little oven kick, no movement in the slash marks and it will possibly collapse. There is no way to 'fix' an over proved dough.

Scoring - Slashing

When you are confident your dough is ready, it is time to score or slash the dough to your desired pattern.  There are two main reasons to score/slash your dough.

Firstly, it gives the dough a 'place' to expand. If you don't slash your loaves, they will still breakout somewhere - and probably look quite odd as a result – whereas, if you slash wisely, you can control your final loaf shape by allowing the dough to expand in that direction. For instance: if you have a round loaf, you can make it come out slightly square or at least, quite level, by slashing across the top several times from one side to the other on the diagonal and then doing the same again from the opposite direction to create a criss-cross pattern. If you are after a flat round ball, slash the sides only (not across the top) or alternatively, if you want your loaf to be nice and perky, slash the top only and not the sides.

Secondly, whilst not at all a practical consideration these days, slashing the top of your loaf celebrates both your personal style and the proud history of baking. Originally, baking was done in communal ovens and the lovely designs you see cut into traditional loaves were a way of identifying whose loaf was whose – in effect, they were the baker's signature.

Special, curved-bladed scalpel-like knives (called lames), designed specifically for slashing artisan loaves, are available from bakery supply and cookware shops. The curved blade of a lame gives a particularly neat and helpful cut and doesn't 'tear' the dough as much as a normal knife, but they are certainly not essential for home baking.

Whatever marks/slashes you decide upon, it is important that, whilst they need to be made with a firm hand (well, knife or lame, actually!), you don't go too deep or you will deflate the bread dough. A depth of about half a centimetre is ideal.

The final process is, of course:

Baking with a Wood Fired Oven

The other major factor in successful bread making is the oven. With a wood fired oven, you need to have created a solid preparatory fire and have built the oven temperature over time, so that the floor, the walls and the air are all well soaked with heat.

If you are using a thermostat to monitor the temperature, you want to start preparing your oven when it holds at around 250^oC – 275^oC.

Prepare Your Wood Fired Oven for Baking

Remove the fire from the baking chamber, clean out the fine particles of wood and ash that remain, mop the floor over with a damp mop (or a damp rag attached to the end of a stick!), place the door on and allow the heat to equalize for about an hour.

At that point in time, you are aiming for an air temperature of about 230^oC to ensure a successful bread bake. The only real exception to this ideal temperature is if your dough is quite sweet – usually sweet breads/buns are baked at around 190-200 ^oC.

The creation of steam is very important in the first stage of the baking cycle. If possible, creating and maintaining a moist, steamy environment for the first 6-8 minutes of baking will allow maximum kick/expansion (as the dough hits the hot oven, it actually contracts slightly due to evaporation, so having a moist initial environment really helps the loaf expand to its maximum potential) and will also help keep the skin soft while the bread develops. This softness-for-longer will both give you more volume in your bread and ensure the crust, when it forms, is thin, shiny and crispy.

THE BAKER SAYS: "There are many ways to create steam in your oven".
In the design and construction of my own oven I installed a steam injection system. This is basically a copper pipe  with some brass sprinkler nozzles. It is attached to the inside wall of the baking chamber with an external inlet. I usually connect this to the garden hose and turn it on for 3 seconds once the bread is loaded.

A simpler but still effective option is to leave a cast iron pot or an old baking pan full of nuts and bolts and other small bits of metal in the oven while it is heating and then pour about a cup of boiling water over that just after you load the bread – the theory being that the metal pieces will hold lots of heat and so create maximum steam.

Other people pre-heat a small frypan in the oven and add four or five ice cubes before baking; but at a bare minimum, grab yourself a spray bottle and spray a ½ cup or so of water into the oven after loading – you'll notice the difference.

Whatever method you use to creat your steam, obviously, you want to get the oven shut as quickly as possible after that. A reasonable door seal will help maintain both the moisture content and the heat in the oven for as long as possible. If your door does not fit well, very well soaked and then wrung out cotton rags can be draped over the door edge to help create a seal.

It is crucial that the oven door is not opened for at least 10-15 minutes after loading to ensure that the bread has started to colour and the initial high temp/high moisture kick has been achieved. After that time, it is ok to open the door quickly to check on your loaves.

To be cooked through, bread needs to reach an internal temperature of 95^oC. You can also test the loaves by picking them up (they should feel very light) and by tapping them (the crust should feel firm and they should make a nice 'hollow' sound).

As a guide, a 500 gram loaf at 230^oC should take aprox 25 mins to cook, bread rolls about 18 mins and fruit buns (which are cooked at a lower temperature because of their higher sugar content), about 25-30 minutes.

Once the loaves/buns are removed from the oven, they need to be left out in the open to cool down. Perfectly cooked loaves will actually 'crackle' when taken out of the oven. They should then be placed on cooling racks or on a bread crate covered loosely with cotton material or on some other mesh/open surface that will allow air all around them.

If bread is not allowed to cool in this manner, the crust will not reset correctly. Most loaves come out of the oven with a good crust, however, during the cooling process, ALL loaves soften up again. If allowed to cool in a well ventilated environment, the crust will reform perfectly.

Begin well

Get a good blaze going

Let it develop over time

Keep it stoked so heat builds

Watch the ceiling change colour

A clean ceiling indicates pizza temp (a bit above bread temp)

Clean up quickly, put the door on, let the oven stabilise for up to an hour, then add the bread

Create steam in your wood fired oven

Wait patiently for a good 10-15 minutes before opening your oven to check if the loaves are done

The BIG REVEAL will be worth the wait

Here they come

But wait, there’s more!

What about doing a second batch of buns or sweet bread – things that like a the slightly lower temperature?

Whatever you do, make sure you allow the bread to cool completely

Pete and his babies

SUMMARY

BREAD MAKING PROCESS

The bread making processes are quite complex and vary according to both the ingredients and the type of loaves required. In general though, the steps can be summed up as follows:

Here Endeth The Lesson!

If you'd like to learn more, Scott regularly conducts 2 day courses in Artisan Bread Making through Holmsglen TAFE in Victoria. Contact Holmsglen direct for further details and 2012 course dates.
https://www.holmesglen.edu.au/

• Advanced Bread Making Part One: Main Bread Ingredients and Functions
• Advanced Bread Making Part Two: Creating A Recipe
• Advanced Bread Making Part Three: Processes Involved In Bread Making